In the narrowest possible terms, what ports/protocols do I need to allow outbound from a host through a firewall so that a message generated by the mail command would get through?
You'll need to allow Domain Name Service (DNS) to resolve the MX record and/or the A record of the destination mail server. You'll also need to allow SMTP for the actual mail transaction.
grep smtp /etc/services grep domain /etc/services
You might only allow DNS to a local DNS server, and have that DNS server handle any necessary external queries.
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