Long ago I read a book in USA library by author Daly on ecology and
economics; so from my material and google extracts of the book, formed this
article. K Rajaram IRS 17126
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Is Ecology Also Economics-Based?
An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Ecology, Economics, and Sustainability
Introduction
Ecology and economics are commonly understood as distinct academic
disciplines, each with its own methodologies, assumptions, and historical
development. Ecology is traditionally classified as a natural science
rooted in biology, concerned with the interactions among organisms and
between organisms and their environment. Economics, by contrast, is a
social science focused on how humans allocate scarce resources to satisfy
unlimited wants. At first glance, these fields appear fundamentally
different in both purpose and approach. However, the increasing scale and
intensity of human impacts on the natural environment have brought ecology
and economics into close and unavoidable contact.
Global environmental challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss,
deforestation, soil degradation, water scarcity, and ocean overexploitation
demonstrate that ecological systems and economic systems are deeply
interconnected. Economic growth depends heavily on natural resources and
ecosystem functions, while ecological degradation is often driven by
economic activities. This interdependence has raised important theoretical
and practical questions: Is ecology also economics-based? Should ecological
systems be understood and managed through economic frameworks? Or does
applying economic logic to ecology risk oversimplifying complex natural
processes?
This write-up argues that ecology is not economics-based in its origins,
principles, or core scientific framework. Ecology remains fundamentally a
biological science governed by natural laws rather than market mechanisms.
However, ecology is increasingly intertwined with economics in application,
policy, and interdisciplinary research. The rise of ecological economics,
the concept of ecosystem services, and sustainability discourse illustrate
how economic thinking has become inseparable from modern ecological
management. Understanding this relationship is essential for addressing
contemporary environmental challenges and achieving long-term
sustainability.
The Origins and Scientific Foundations of Ecology
Historical Development of Ecology
Ecology emerged as a distinct scientific discipline in the late nineteenth
century, although its roots can be traced back to earlier naturalists such
as Alexander von Humboldt and Charles Darwin. The term “ecology” was coined
in 1866 by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel, who defined it as the study
of relationships between organisms and their environment. From its
inception, ecology was grounded in biology and natural history, not
economics or social science.
Early ecological research focused on describing patterns in nature, such as
species distributions, population fluctuations, and community structure.
Over time, ecology developed into a rigorous quantitative science
incorporating mathematics, physics, chemistry, and evolutionary theory.
Subfields such as population ecology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology,
and landscape ecology expanded the discipline’s scope and analytical power.
Core Ecological Principles
At its core, ecology is concerned with understanding how natural systems
function. Key ecological principles include:
Energy flow: Energy enters ecosystems primarily through photosynthesis and
flows through trophic levels via food chains and food webs.
Nutrient cycling: Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycle
through biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.
Population dynamics: Population size and structure are shaped by birth
rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration.
Species interactions: Predation, competition, mutualism, and parasitism
influence community composition and stability.
Carrying capacity and limits: Ecosystems can support only a finite number
of organisms based on available resources.
Resilience and stability: Ecosystems vary in their ability to resist or
recover from disturbances. {KR different chapters}
These principles are governed by natural laws, including thermodynamics and
evolutionary processes. They operate independently of human economic
systems, prices, or markets. For example, the flow of energy through an
ecosystem follows physical constraints that cannot be altered by economic
incentives.
Ecology as a Natural Science, Not an Economic One
Because ecology seeks to explain natural processes using empirical
observation and scientific theory, it cannot be described as
economics-based. Ecosystems function regardless of whether humans assign
them economic value. Forests regulate climate, oceans cycle nutrients, and
wetlands filter water even in the absence of markets or monetary systems.
However, while ecology is not based on economics, it does place limits on
economic activity. *Ecological constraints such as resource availability,
waste absorption capacity, and ecosystem thresholds directly affect what
economic systems can sustainably achieve. In this sense, ecology sets the
biophysical boundaries within which economies must operate.*
Economics and Its Relationship to the Environment
Traditional Economic Perspectives on Nature
Classical and neoclassical economic theories historically treated nature as
an external factor or an infinite resource base. Natural resources were
often viewed as inputs to production, while pollution and environmental
degradation were considered externalities—costs not reflected in market
prices.
This perspective allowed economies to grow rapidly, particularly during the
industrial era, but it also contributed to widespread environmental
degradation. By failing to account for ecological limits and long-term
environmental costs, traditional economic models encouraged
overexploitation of natural resources.
Scarcity, Growth, and Environmental Limits
Economics is fundamentally concerned with scarcity and choice. However,
conventional economic models often assume that technological innovation and
market substitution can overcome natural resource constraints. Ecology
challenges this assumption by demonstrating that many ecosystem services
have no substitutes and that some ecological damages are irreversible.
For example, biodiversity loss cannot be easily reversed through
technological means, and climate regulation provided by intact ecosystems
cannot be fully replicated by artificial systems. These realities highlight
the limitations of purely economic approaches to environmental management.
Ecosystem Services: Bridging Ecology and Economics
The Concept of Ecosystem Services
The concept of ecosystem services represents one of the most significant
efforts to integrate ecology and economics. Ecosystem services refer to the
benefits that humans derive from natural ecosystems. These services are
commonly categorized into four groups:
Provisioning services: Food, water, timber, fiber, and medicinal resources.
Regulating services: Climate regulation, flood control, disease regulation,
and water purification.
Supporting services: Soil formation, nutrient cycling, and primary
production.
Cultural services: Recreational, spiritual, aesthetic, and educational
benefits.
By framing ecological functions in terms of benefits to humans, the
ecosystem services concept makes ecological processes visible to economic
decision-makers and policymakers.
Economic Valuation of Ecosystems
Assigning economic value to ecosystem services is a controversial but
influential practice. Studies such as Costanza et al. (1997) estimated the
global value of ecosystem services to be greater than global GDP, drawing
attention to the immense but often unrecognized contribution of nature to
human well-being.
Economic valuation can help justify conservation by demonstrating that
protecting ecosystems is not only environmentally beneficial but also
economically rational. For example, preserving mangroves may be more
cost-effective than building artificial flood defenses.
Critiques of Ecosystem Valuation
Despite its usefulness, ecosystem valuation has limitations. Critics argue
that reducing nature to monetary values risks commodifying ecosystems and
ignoring their intrinsic worth. Some ecological and cultural values cannot
be accurately captured in economic terms, and overreliance on valuation may
lead to policies that prioritize profitable ecosystems over ecologically
critical ones.
Thus, while ecosystem services connect ecology and economics, they do not
transform ecology into an economics-based discipline.
Ecological Economics: An Interdisciplinary Framework
Emergence of Ecological Economics
Ecological economics emerged in the late twentieth century as a response to
the failure of traditional economics to address environmental crises.
Scholars such as Herman Daly argued that economies are subsystems of the
Earth’s finite ecological system and must operate within ecological limits.
Unlike environmental economics, which applies economic tools to
environmental problems, ecological economics integrates ecological
principles directly into economic theory.
Core Principles of Ecological Economics
Ecological economics is based on several key principles:
Biophysical limits: Economic activity is constrained by energy, materials,
and ecosystem capacity.
Sustainability over growth: Continuous economic growth is incompatible with
a finite planet.
Natural capital: Ecosystems are forms of capital that provide essential
services.
Intergenerational equity: Current economic decisions should not compromise
future generations.
Systems thinking: Economic and ecological systems are interconnected and
complex.
These principles demonstrate how ecology informs economic thinking, not the
other way around.
Steady-State Economy
One influential concept in ecological economics is the steady-state
economy, which aims to maintain stable levels of population and consumption
within ecological limits. This idea contrasts sharply with growth-oriented
economic models and highlights the central role of ecology in defining
sustainable economic boundaries.
Conceptual Parallels Between Ecology and Economics
Shared Analytical Concepts
Ecology and economics share several analytical concepts that facilitate
interdisciplinary dialogue:
Scarcity: Resources are limited in both ecological and economic systems.
Competition: Organisms and economic agents compete for resources.
Trade-offs: Energy allocation in organisms mirrors budget constraints in
economics.
Efficiency: Both disciplines study how systems use resources effectively.
Feedback loops: Ecological and economic systems exhibit nonlinear dynamics
and feedbacks.
These parallels have led some scholars to apply economic models to
ecological systems and vice versa.
Important Differences
Despite these similarities, important differences remain. Ecological
systems are shaped by evolutionary processes and natural selection, whereas
economic systems are shaped by human institutions, preferences, and power
structures. Treating ecosystems as markets can obscure these fundamental
distinctions.
Ecology, Economics, and Environmental Policy
Economic Instruments in Environmental Management
Modern environmental policy often relies on economic instruments informed
by ecological science. Examples include:
Carbon taxes and emissions trading systems
Payments for ecosystem services
Environmental subsidies and taxes
Cost–benefit analysis in conservation planning
These tools aim to align economic incentives with ecological sustainability.
Sustainable Development
The concept of sustainable development, popularized by the Brundtland
Report (1987), emphasizes meeting present needs without compromising future
generations. Achieving sustainable development requires integrating
ecological limits with economic and social goals.
Ignoring ecological realities in economic planning can lead to
environmental collapse and long-term economic decline, as seen in
overfished fisheries or degraded agricultural lands.
Ethical and Philosophical Dimensions
Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Value of Nature
A central debate in the ecology–economics relationship concerns the value
of nature. Economics typically emphasizes instrumental value—what nature
provides to humans—while ecology and environmental ethics often emphasize
intrinsic value, the worth of nature independent of human use.
Reducing ecology to economics risks neglecting ethical responsibilities
toward non-human life and future generations.
Environmental Justice
Ecological degradation often disproportionately affects marginalized
communities. Integrating ecology and economics must therefore consider
issues of equity, justice, and power, not merely efficiency.
Ecology is not economics-based in its origins, methods, or fundamental
principles. It is a natural science dedicated to understanding how living
systems function within the physical environment. However, in a world
dominated by human economic activity, ecology and economics have become
deeply intertwined. Economic systems depend on ecological systems for
resources, stability, and resilience, while ecological degradation is
driven largely by economic forces.
The rise of ecosystem services, ecological economics, and sustainability
frameworks demonstrates that modern economic thinking increasingly
incorporates ecological principles. Rather than ecology becoming
economics-based, it is more accurate to say that economics must become
ecology-aware. Addressing global environmental challenges requires
respecting ecological limits while designing economic systems that promote
long-term sustainability, equity, and well-being.
In the twenty-first century, the future of both ecology and economics lies
not in disciplinary separation but in informed, critical integration that
acknowledges the primacy of ecological systems in sustaining life on Earth.
References
Daly, H. E. (1996). Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable
Development. Beacon Press.
Daly, H. E., & Farley, J. (2011). Ecological Economics: Principles and
Applications. Island Press.
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K RAJARAM IRS 16126
On Sat, 17 Jan 2026 at 06:04, Markendeya Yeddanapudi <
[email protected]> wrote:
>
>
> --
> *Mar*
>
> Ecology-Vs-Economics
>
>
>
> The Ecology of free nature automatically regenerates nature. The Cartesian
> Economics which promotes mechanization continuously degenerates and
> destroys nature. Ecology regenerates and economics degenerates. Everything
> in the Universe is connected to everything else in the Universe via
> electromagnetism.
>
> On the earth every life form is connected to every other life form
> emotionally via the troposphere. These two basic forces connect every life
> form to nature; every machine disturbs this fundamental connection.
>
> Every organism grows in life via these two connections and as a result
> every organism develops new and new endowments. Symbiosis is the path of
> growth which means new and new endowments, the gifts of evolution. Mutation
> was the natural process through which organisms gained new endowments. Just
> imagine the gigantic process of unicellular organisms mutating into diverse
> multicellular organisms of trillions of cells, every cell served by
> particular bacteria.
>
> On the other hand every life form gets maimed of its natural endowments
> by economics. Our great ancestors ran, swam, hopped, climbed, sang, and
> tuned with every other organisms in the gigantic Hormonic, in the free and
> symbiotic nature, the life of continuous exercise giving the new muscles
> that created new endowments. May be if only nature was left free we may
> have developed the capacity to fly like birds.
>
> Today we need the mechanical clutches for the same lost endowments. We do
> not even comprehend the gigantic loss.
>
> Imagine life when every cell in you, every bacterium in you joins the
> macro symbiosis. The endowments of those days have become supernatural
> powers and our Rationalists and Atheists scoff and lampoon at the very
> mention of those natural endowments dubbed as supernatural powers. Actually
> our great ancestors did not need any cell phones. They sensed naturally
> communications. They smelt and sensed. The Biosphere lived and functioned
> as one organism, Gaia.
>
> When a machine is used to do the work of a limb, then that symbiotic
> connection gets cut and that limb gradually becomes dysfunctional and
> ultimately freezes. The phenomenon of what may be called the Macro death
> grows. When an organism loses the macro connection, that organism has to
> wage a lonely struggle to live and Darwinism takes over creating the
> antibiosis. The net result for the humans today is the change of the
> ecological human into the Darwinized economic man.
>
> This economic man has taken his life into economic life which needs the
> continuous destruction of nature. Actually the subject Anatomy must be
> studied as the natural potential of every limb to develop new endowments
> via natural mutations in the free, healthy and symbiotic nature.
> Unfortunately we changed evolution into stagnation. And we define scope and
> stagnate. Can you imagine a subject that predicts the gaining of new
> natural endowments as part of natural evolution? That very aspect of nature
> has been killed by mechanization.
>
> Every University must have the basic mission to revive the symbiotic
> natural evolution.Mecanization and economics are conspiracies against
> nature. Education cannot be surrender to machines. It must create new
> natural endowments, not increase the dependence on machines for every limb
> function.
>
> The first basic step is to start a ‘Free Nature Park’ without any
> tampering to pioneer the revival of the lost natural faculties. We must
> realize that in the free and healthy nature, new endowments mutate
> naturally. Mutation is progress.
>
> YM Sarma
>
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