(Thoughts from Mr J quote:
Rig Veda teaches that money is important, but it should be used wisely and
in moderation:
Live within your means: The Vedas teach that people should not spend more
than they earn and avoid taking on excessive debt.
Save and invest: The Vedas advise people to save a portion of their income
and invest in secure, long-term investments.
Give generously: The Vedas emphasize the importance of giving generously.
Don't hoard wealth: The Rig Veda makes it clear that hoarding wealth is
wrong.
Artha is a noble goal: Artha, or wealth, is one of the four goals of life
in the Vedic tradition, but it should be pursued in a way that follows
dharma (righteousness).
2 The Vedic tradition also teaches that wealth can include non-tangibles
like knowledge, friendship, and love.
You Need to Earn Wealth by Deeds of Glory - (Rig Veda Samhita vi-19-10)
According to Vedic wisdom, we have five obligatory duties or
responsibilities – as humans. These duties are entrusted upon us by the
Creator Himself and include:
1. Brahma Yajna (Service to God)
2. Deva Yajna (Service to gods)
3. PitrYajna (Service to your ancestors)
4. ManusyaYajna (Service to fellow human beings)
5. BhutaYajna (Service to the rest of the creatures)
The Vedic scriptures also describe that you need wealth to perform these
duties. As the breadwinner for your family, therefore, you must make a
living and provide for your family by engaging in a profession or
commercial activity. Moreover, you must make sure that you use your money
wisely, without indulging in any suspicious activities (or avoid bad
karma). It is when you acquire wealth through ethical and moral means and
use it to fulfill your duties that you can earn yourself a good reputation
in front of your family and society at large.
3 A Man Shall Strive to Win Wealth by the Righteous Path. (Rig Veda
Samhita x-31-2)
The Vedas describe money as ‘green energy’, which you receive in exchange
for your energy (in the form of concerted physical and mental effort). In
other words, we put our inherent energy in such a way that it proves to be
beneficial for others.
In turn, we receive the remuneration for our efforts, in the form of money
(or anything else that we deem of value). This exchange of energy and
efforts is called the ‘business aspect’ of life. Therefore, the Vedas
emphasize putting your efforts into maximizing your money and patiently
wait for your wealth to grow.
4 One Who Gets Up Early Morning Gets the Treasure. (Rig Veda Samhita
i-125-1)
Studying Vedas, you learn that the purpose of our existence is to
experience true happiness. Many of us spend our entire lives pursuing
happiness, while it somehow eludes them. To make sure that we are on the
right track towards achieving contentment in life, we need to differentiate
between our necessities and desires and create a balance in our lives.
Subsequently, we need to start working towards fulfilment of our needs as
soon as possible. The sooner we start on our journey towards financial
contentment, the better chances we have to leverage the right instruments
to serve our purpose.
5 One Shall Produce Fair Wealth for Today and Tomorrow. (Rig Veda
Samhita vi-71-6
One of the most prominent financial management lessons from Vedas comes
from the Rig Veda, which advocates the conservation of resources (both
physical and financial) to take care of your future requirements. On the
other hand, the Vedic wisdom condemns poverty and advises you to take steps
to eradicate it.
Individuals who share this attitude will never compromise their future
goals for present-day desires. Instead, they work smartly on accumulating
and preserving their wealth so that they can fulfill their present-day
commitments while making sure that there is enough financial buffer to take
care of their future needs.
To do that, you must have a balanced outlook and try to live within your
means. Doing so will allow you to envision your future and take the
required steps to transform your vision into results while attending to the
tasks at hand. This is how the process of financial planning works – the
Vedic way.
6 The Arthasastra clarifies the term Artha as the source of the
livelihood by men following various occupations. Valmikiramaya@a says that
a man who begets wealth achieves the successive objects of life
(Purushartha) namely kama and the allied. Everything falls in line with
him. He who is impoverished cannot get wealth without purushartha even
though he nourishes the desire to have it. The wealth serves the purpose of
a friend. Hence the Vedic seers offer prayers towards the Almighty God-O
God! May you bestow that fortunate wealth on us, which is treasured in the
mountains etc., or lies under the ground,
or it is hidden in the un-fathomable oceans-
7 In Atharvaveda, seer says to the motherland-‘ O Mother-land, may you
stabilize me with the pious wealth. O Omniscient Earth, you have your
contacts with the heaven. May you make me wealthy and well-to-do- Grant us
indeed, Agni, wealth that may be counted by thousands, and comprising
progeny, sustenance, brilliant riches, and vigour, and be neverending and
be countless and in-exhaustible.
Rigveda-7.72.2//Rgveda-8.45.41//Atharvaveda-12.1.63//Riveda-3.13.7
8 2. IMPORTANCE OF WEALTH
Artha (Material wealth) occupies the second position amongst the
fourfoldvalue of life. It is highly vital for every human being as it is a
means ofhappiness and enjoyment irrespective of caste and creed. Even for a
Brahma@a, according to Mahar7i Manu, the earning of wealth (artharjana) is
a obligation. The significance of wealth is well imagined from the prayers
sung by the worshippers for obtaining wealth-
i.e. No other than you, Prajapati, has given way of life to all things. May
that object of our desires for which we sacrifice to you be ours, may we be
the possessors of riches. Sacrifices and worships were made for attaining
productive land, pleasant homes and wealth. The Vedic seer says-
‘May we be the masters of wealth’ is intense desire for Vedic people, which
could be authenticated by following mantras-
i.e. May my wealth and my possessions, and my opulence and my growth, and
my pervading command and my leadership, and my profusion and mygreater
abundance, and my bad harvest and my unwasted crop, and my foodand my
satiety flourish by sacrifice.
Yajurveda-18.10
9 “WEALTH AND ITS VARIOUS ASPECTS AS DEPICTED IN VEDIC LITERATURE”
i.e. O Agni, be our nearest friend, be you a kind deliverer and a congenial
companion. Come as good Agni, come as outstanding and give us wealth most
splendidly renowned.
‘May God bless us with valuable wealth’ are the universal prayers of Vedic
seers. Vedic seer says- i.e. May Bhaga, gods, be the holder of affluence,
and, through him, may we be possessed of wealth.
It has been again said that- i.e. O Indra! Safeguard those who have a high
regard for you, and are wellheeledin offering and deliver us wealth with
great riches.
10 3. WEALTH FOR WELFARE OF ALL
Charity towards a needy human being14, welfare of other, individual
nourishment, care and competence17 are certain points described in the
Vedic verses regarding the utilization of wealth. Wellbeing of all was
considered as the main purpose of its attainment.
11 4. DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH
The economic philosophy of Vedas suggested an impartial sharing of food and
wealth. A mantra of Rgveda describes that a person who eats alone is
nothing but a sinner - Similarly, Gita condemns a person
who eats single-handedly by saying that he is nothing but a sinner -
rgveda-7.41.5//Yajurveda-7.14//rgveda-1.3.2//Gita-3.13
12 5. ETHICAL EARNING OF WEALTH
Going by the Vedic literature it seems quite obvious that guiding code for
the well-off life related to the ownership of wealth was essentially moral
and ethical. The Vedic seers, knowing the importance of wealth to lead a
satisfied and comfortable life, had established certain rules and
restrictions to its attainment. Firstly, nobody was allowed to bring
together unlimited wealth by encroaching upon lifehood of others. A prayer
to Indra demonstrates this very clearly. Rishi Gautama says to Indra, “You
are able to see the wealth of those persons, who never give to others and
are hoarding it beyond limit. Please distribute their wealth amongst us.”
Thus, profusion of wealth, without its proper use was condemned. The
various types of sacrifices were introduced by
the Vedic seer to check the hoarding of wealth in a few hands. Emphasis was
always laid on honest means for achievement of wealth. Seer says-“O Agni!
Lead us to wealth through the right path”. It is pertinent to point out
that the people of Vedic period longed for the wealth which could only be
earned by judicious means
13 6. VARIOUS ASPECTS OF WEALTH
6.1. AGRICULTURE
Going by the Vedic literature, it is quite evident that Agriculture has
been treated as source of affluence and sustenance.25 In the Vedic period
agriculture was the chief livelihood of the people. The term krishi occurs
in the Rgveda quite number of times. It gives grain, strength and lustre.
The Akshasukta of Rgveda considers agriculture to be the best of all
occupations and advises to give up gambling and take to farming for the
welfare of the family-i.e. Giving serious attention to my advice, play not
with dice and pursue agriculture and be delighted in wealth so acquired.
6.1.1. FARMERS
Thought for agriculture sans farmers has no meaning. So the Vedas have made
deliberations in this regard. The word ‘Kinasa’ has been used for farmers
in the Vedas. Farmers have been termed as ‘Annavid’ i.e. specialist in
grains.
6.1.2 LAND
Land was recognised as wealth during Vedic period. In Satapatha
Brahmana the giving of land as fee to priests has been mentioned. It is to
be noted that land was rightly considered wealth as it fulfils the basic
necessities of people and of their cattle by producing food-grain and grass
respectively. The Atharvaveda, Yajurveda and Taittiriya Sa¯hita mention
several kinds of land. There is three broad divisions-Urvara (Fertile),
Irida (barren) and Sashpya (Pasture). The Vajasaneyi Samhita mentions lands
of many kinds, such as tracts in hill area, open plains, stream land,
slopes and undulating regions, flat surfaces with green pastures, low
fertile regions and cultivable lands with\ homesteads.
6.1.3 FARMING
Methods of farming have been discussed in Vedas. Atharvaveda states
many facts concerning agriculture. There is a great deal of similarity
between method of farming mentioned in Atharvaveda and modern method. In
Saatapatha Brahmana the whole process of farming has been described in four
word- Karshana (cultivating the field), Vapana (Sowing seeds), Lavana
(Reaping the harvest) and Mardan (Threshing). First of all, cultivable
fertile land is ploughed and prepared for sowing seeds. Ploughing was
regarded as an important process in cultivation. Prayers were offered for
the ploughshare to plough the field properly and for tillers to ply
rightly. Mistakes in ploughing were corrected, as was done by a priest in
reciting a hymn. It has been described that good yield is possible in
well-ploughed and fertile land-The farmer after ploughing ceremony starts
ploughing the field repeatedly with the prayers-
i.e. May the low-lying lands so ploughed and rich with milk and wet with
honey and ghee come back to us much fertilized.
6.1.4. SOWING
Sowing being an important process in cultivation was given serious
attention and care in Vedic period. One of the =gvedic mantra says on the
sowing - “Harness the ploughs fit on the yokes, now that the womb of the
earth is ready to sow the seeds therein.40 Another mantra says - “Attach
the ‘sira’ spread apart the yokes, sow the seeds into the prepared womb”.
These two mantras suggest that after an initial ploughing the seeds were
sown with the help of a plough. When the crop gets ready it was reaped with
the help of a Satapatha Brāhmana-1.6.1.3 sickle. The reaped corn was tied
in bundles and taken to granaries, where it was threshed. Threshing
separates grain from its stalk. After threshing there was winnowing. The
Atharvaveda also mentions holding Surpa, winnowing the husk, using husk for
cows, collecting rice after separating its husk etc. Cleaning of grain by
pounding it in mortar has also been described. The cleaned grain was stored
in large earthen pots after measuring its quantity. The
pot used in measuring was called Urdara.
6.1.5. APPLIANCES USED IN FARMING
The development of agriculture is reflected in the number of tools and
implements fashioned by any community and their effectiveness. They help
overcome the difficulties presented by nature and geography. The tools and
appliances used in farming have also been mentioned in the Atharvaveda. The
Vedic literature mentions ‘abhri’ as a digging tool. It was hollow and was
a span or sometimes a cubit long. The Vedic term for plough are ‘laBgala’
and ‘sira’. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumbara. The =gvedic
plough is taken to be a simple and light implement made of wood. But the
reference to its well smoothed handle and its sharp pointed share48 pointed
share suggests that
there was an effort to improve it to make it something of which the owner
could feel proud. The Rgveda refers to six to twelve oxen being yoked to
the plough. The rgvedic mantra refers to the use of horses for ploughing.
The whip or stick used by a ploughman to drive bullocks is known as
‘Ashtra’.
6.1.6. INCREASING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
For increasing agricultural production, various other techniques and
arrangements were developed by Vedic people. They include development of
manuring, irrigation, pesticides etc.
6.1.7. MANURE
Evidence of use of manures are found in Vedic literature. The word
‘Karisha’ occurring in the Satapatha Brahma@a denoted dry cowdung.52
The Atharvaveda provides the reference in mentioning cowdung as a useful
manure for ‘sali’ variety of rice.
6.1.8. IRRIGATION
Water is essential for growth of crops. Rain water is the first and
foremost source of water supply. It has been considered to be the prominent
means of irrigation. Several mantras deal with the importance of rain for
good crops. The Yajurveda and Taittiriya Samhita, too, discuss the
importance of rain. But, in many cases it is either insufficient or
irregular or available on time. Hence, keeping in view this very fact,
Rgveda mentions four kinds of water used for irrigation purposes. They
are-i) Divyah (Rain water), ii) Khanitrimah (Water of
wells), iii) Svayajah (Spring water) and iv) Samudrarthah (The water of the
rivers falling into sea).
The Yajurveda and Taittiriya Samhita, too, mention various means of
irrigation. They are-Wells, canals, fountains, tanks, rivers and
reservoirs. Both small and big means of irrigation have been mentioned
therein.
The =gveda, describing the well as a means of irrigation, also mentions
various appliances used in irrigation from wells. They are: Kosa (a leather
(Satapatha Brāhmana-2.1.1.7) bucket, Varatra (rope), Asmacakra (earthen
pitcher). The water taken out of
wells were poured in reservoirs.
14 FOODGRAIN
Food-grain is an important possession. People accepted food-grain as
wealth. Bhojana, which is used for food, is derived from the root bhuj (to
eat, to enjoy) is a name for wealth in Nighandu. Some epithets used for
Bhojanadenote the interest of the rgvedic people towards a good and
qualitative food, which is clear by following mantras -
It indicates that cooking was fully developed at that time. Food is more
frequently called Anna. This word is derived from the root ‘Ad’ (to eat)
and thusliterarily means ‘which is eaten by all creatures.
It has been said that grain is important as the means of satisfying one’s
hunger. It nourishes and cures diseases. As we depend upon it for us
survival, we must devote all our wisdom to improve it.65 Human life
dependsupon cultivation and grain. One who gets success in cultivation can
give shelterto others. As human life depends upon grain or food it is
Brahman for humanbeings. It brings light to human life and removes gloom of
poverty. Many mantras contain prayers for the prosperity of grain- i.e. Let
this crop of barley spring up and grow in plenty through its magnificence.
Let it overcome all the trouble in the way of growth and let not
thunderbolt or natural calamities destroy it. Let this barely crop which is
good eatable cooked nicely responsive to cooking process grow up there we
find soil of which we speak highly. Let it spring up like the sun and be
inexhaustible like ocean or space. Let the other crop in its vicinity be
inexhaustible, let the gathered heap of it be inexhaustible, let the givers
of the inexhaustible and let the men who eat it, be inexhaustible.
15 The Yajurveda mentions twelve grains- vrihi, nivara, yava, godhuma,
priyangu, anu, syamaka, masha, mudga, masura, khalva and tila. The word
ikshu is found in Taittiriya Samhita and Atharvaveda. The mantra in
Taittiriya Samhita discusses the seasons of agriculture. Barley, for
instance, is stated to ripen in summer, rice in autumn, beans and Sesamum
in winter.
16 7. CATTLE WEALTH
Cattle wealth was highly valued during the Vedic period and that is why
we find various prayers attributed to the different deities for bestowing
that wealth on worshipers clearly recognizes cattle as wealth Detailed
description of animals and other living beings are found in the Vedas.
Animals have been classified thus: i) Gramya-Those living in villages known
as pet animals. ii) Arashya-Those living in the forests. This division
finds place in Maitrayani Samhita. The Atharvaveda stresses the importance
oflivestock. Let there be pet animals in e ery house. May there be
prosperity oflivestock all around. May there be livestock too alongwith
food and wealth. Rgveda cows have been described as superior wealth-i.e.
May the cows be for our affluence: may Indra grant me cattle: may thecows
yield the food of the first libation: these cows, oh men, are the Indra,
theIndra whom I desire with heart and mind.
Separate hymns are devoted to cows.75 Cows were also given as dakshna to
the rtviks at the sacrifices.
17 Horses were too taken as superior wealth. {KR BUT WENDY DONIGERT AND
OTHER HISTORIANS SAY WE NEVER HAD HORSES AS WERE BROUGHT ONLY FROM EUROPE.}
In rgveda, Maruts are asked to bring wealth comprising horses. They were
considered as an important
possession because of their utility in riding and drawing chariots.
Besides, sheep, goat, elephant, mule, bull and dogs were also considered
valuable wealth.
18 8. COTTAGE INDUSTRY
Creativeness is the product of the human mind and industry develops on
creativeness. This creativeness of mind made Aryans to invent several
cottage industries like spinning and weaving, metals and metallurgy,
leather, woodwork, pottery, plaiting etc. Vedic economy was an agricultural
economy and cottage industries were known as complementary and
supplementary to agriculture. Here are some of the cottage industries.
8.1. TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Textile industry was highly developed in the Vedic period and was
recognized as an important source of income. People used to weave cloth for
their and others use. It is evident from the references scattered
throughout the Vedic texts that people were very familiar with techniques
of spinning and weaving. Elegant dresses have played a very important role
in increasing physical beauty. Wearing clothes leads to welfare and
well-being. Clothes have also been considered to be the means of longevity
and prosperity. In Vedic tradition, we have copious references to the
costumes which were put on in different seasons and on various occasions.
We come across in the Vedic literature names of various garments which were
worn by the people in that age. We have also referenced to many materials
used in making cloth. In the
rgveda it is said that woolen clothes were woven with a pushana. Words like
otu (the woof), tantu (yarn), tantra (the wrap), vemana (loom),
prachinatana (the wrap drawn in front), vaya (weaver) are the clear
evidence of the fact that the process of weaving clothes was fully in vogue
in the Vedic age. The adornment and embroidery of clothes were also
practiced. Three kinds of clothes have been mentioned in the Atharvaveda
viz cotton, silken and woolen. The word ‘Vasas’ is used for cotton
clothes85 and Tarpya for the silken. Silken cloth was prepared from the
fibers of the plant known as ‘Trpa'. In the Vedic age, three garments
namely i) Vasa, ii) Adhivasa and iii) Nivi were worn. ‘Vasa’ was the
garment, ‘adhivasa’ was the over-garment and the lion cloth or a piece of
cloth ticked round the waist like dhoti was called ‘nivi'. Both men and
women wore these garments. In addition to these three garments men also put
on a garment called ‘atka’ It was a long garment with which the whole body
was covered. Another garment mentioned in Vedic literature is ‘drapi’. It
was a close fitting, embroidered, coat like garment worn both be men and
women. This shows that sewn cloth was in vogue in the Vedic age. A garment
called ‘upavasana’ fluttered in air.
8.2. METAL AND METALLURGY
From very early period Aryans were familiar with metals and their
uses. Many people adopted metal work as their source of livelihood.
Generally, five to six metals were known to the people of Vedic times as it
is clear from references scattered throughout the Vedic literature, viz-
Hiranya-Gold; Ayas, Syama, Karshnayasa- Iron or copper or bronze;
Rajata-Siver; Loha-Copper; Sisa-Lead; Trapu-Tin. In Yajurveda six metals
have been mentioned as hira@ya, ayas, syama, loha, sisa and trapu. Here it
has been said that the sacrificer enriches himself in these
metals by performing sacrifice-Satapatha Brahma@a states that metals arose
from the divided body ofIndra. Among the metals, hira@ya (gold) is
frequently referred to in the Vedic texts and this shows that Aryans
considered gold very valuable. It was always associated with Gods. Gold,
being sun metal, is said to be originated from fire. The Atharvaveda
mentions gold very frequently. It was considered to be very
valuable metal. It was obtained from river-beds and that is why Sindhu is
spoken of by the Vedic seers as rich in gold. According to Atharvaveda,
technique of extracting god from mining developed in Vedic India. In a
mantra of Taittiriya Samhita cleansing of gold is described. The earth,
therefore, has been described as ‘Hiranyavakshas’ i.e. one that keeps God
in its breast. Satapatha Brahmana, too mentions that gold was extracted
from ores by burning them in fire. Different ornaments were made of gold.
Necklaces, earrings and cups were made of it. Sometimes, chariots were also
adorned with gold. In rgveda, Asvins’ sky-touching chariot is described as
with a golden seat,
golden reins, golden supporting shaft, golden axle and golden wheels. Gold
was considered as the most highly esteemed gift and was given in the
‘dakshina' to the priests. In rgveda it is mentioned that Divodasa gave ten
lumps of gold alongwith other articles to a priest. At several places in
the Vedic texts poets have shown the people anxiousness to posses’ gold. In
rgveda, Pushan is said as having golden vessels by which he navigates
within the ocean-firmament. Gold was recognized as a medium of exchange.
The words ‘Ashrapruda’ and ‘Satamana’, denoting units of exchange, are
frequently mentioned in Vedic
texts. Silver also finds mention in Vedic literature. Utensils were
prepared of silver in Vedic India.According to Vedic literature, copper and
iron were also used frequently for economic purposes. ‘Ayas’ has been used
for iron and copper. The Atharvaveda divides it into two. ‘Lohita ayas’ has
been used for copper and ‘Syama ayas’ for iron. In the Yajurveda, the
blacksmith who heats iron etc. has been ‘Ayastapa’. Iron-tipped arrows,
iron pillared chariots of Mitra and Varu@a, iron teeth of Maruts, the
mid-air deities, iron vessels etc. are mentioned in the Vedic literature.
Coins such as nishka, mana, satamana, krshnala etc. were minted from
metals.
[rgveda-2.33.10,8.5.28-29,6.47.23, 9.27.4, 6.58.3, Satapatha Br
āhmana, 5.5.5.16, Atharvaveda-8.10.6,111 Ibid, 11.3.7, Yajurveda-30.14]
8.3. ORNAMENTS
Though the term ‘alamkara’ in the sense of ornaments is noted in the post
samhita period, but there are various types of ornaments mentioned in the
Samhitas. The term ‘alamkara’ is derived from the root ‘kru’ with the
indeclinable ‘alam’ or kara¯’, which means ornaments, decoration,
beautification and ornamentation etc. The word ‘Alamkara’ or ‘Alamkruta’ is
found in Atharvaveda and Chandogya-Upanisad.
The ornaments for the body start from the head down to the feet, i.e. head
ornaments, ear ornaments, neck and chest ornaments, waist ornaments and
feet ornaments. There are number of head ornaments mentioned in Vedic
texts. The name of these ornaments are- ‘Stuka’, ‘Kumba’, ‘Kurira’,
‘Opasa’,‘Srnga’ and ‘Tirida’ etc. Like head ornaments, the description of
ear ornaments is also found in the Vedic literature. Among the major ear
ornaments of the Vedic period special mention may be made of pravarta,
pravartya, hiranyakarns, suchakra, pravepa etc. Neck and chest ornaments
were too popular ornaments used by both men and women in Vedic times,
mentioned in the Vedic texts. In the neck and chest ornaments special
mention may be made of rukma, nishka, hiranya urvasi. The ornaments which
were worn on the wrist like a kankana (bracelet) mentioned in the Vedic
literature were bhujan, khadihasta, pratisara, hasti, parihasta,
hiranyabahu and vala. This apart, mekhla and muñja were also popular
girdles in Vedic period.
8.4. WOOD-WORK
Wood-work was largely developed as an industry in the Vedic age. It
wasaccepted as the most important source of income. Aryans were
predominantlyagriculturists and they needed implements to cultivate the
land and vehicles forcarrying their crops from the fields. It is clear from
the references scatteredthroughout the Vedic texts that people were much
interested in making chariots.
=gveda mentions yoking of five-hundred chariots together.135 By checking
alarge number of references to chariot-making in the Vedic literature, it
seemsthat this work was recognized as an independent industry. The
carpenter waswell known to the people as it is indicated in several
references. The servicesof a carpenter was especially needed when a yupa
(sacrificial post) was to bemade for the sacrifice. Household and
sacrificial utensils such as, dhruva, juhu, sruva (ladles), udaca (bucket),
camasam (bowl) etc. were also made of wood. In Yajurveda, a list of
utensils required in performing a sacrifice is also given as vayavya (a
spoon), drona-kalasa, gravansh, adhishavana, putabh6t and adhavaniya. In
Vedic literature we get references to the furniture articles made up of
wood. The terms like ParyaBka141 (seat), Asandi (It is a long reclining
chair resembling modern sofa. According to Satapatha Brahma na it was an
elaborate seat made of Khadira wood, perforated and joined withstraps.),
Proshrha (According to Satapatha Brahmana, it was a bench and the seats
with solid lower structure and without arm-rests.), Talpa (Bed), Vahya
(Carriage), Sayana (Bed), Upastarana, Upadhana (Pillows or cushions) denote
the furniture known to Vedic India. Besides, the houses were also made of
wood. Wood craft was also indispensible for agricultural and transportation
purposes along with chariot-making. Boats and ships made of wood are
frequently mentioned in the Vedic literature and the art of shipbuilding
was so common to the people that the sacrificial rite was compared to
ship building.
8.5. COSMETIC AND PERFUME INDUSTRY
In ancient India cosmetic was limited to the use of s6k, flower garlands
andgandha, sandal paste to beautify the persons of gods and men. The
wordsugandhi, well-perfumed is used twice in the =gveda in connection with
Agniand Rudra who is also form of Agni. The word gandha is also found
inTaittiriya samhita and Maitrayani Samhita. In the Satapatha Brahmana, the
term gandha is used for about twelve times.
8.6. LEATHER INDUSTRY
The leather industry was at a peak of development in the Vedic age. Several
people were engaged in leather work earning their livelihood. They made
various articles of leather for their use. The word carman denoting ‘hide’
is a Atharvaveda-14.2.65, Satapatha Brāhmana-7.55.8
rgveda-7.55.8, Atharvaveda-5.17.12 common expression from rgveda onwards.
The leatherer manufactured various articles like bow strings, thongs to
fasten the parts of the chariots, reins of horses etc. There are other
references which throw light on the use ofskin vessels for storing soma
juice, curd, honey and wine. Drti ‘leather bag to hold fluids’ is
frequently referred to in the =gveda and later Vedic literature. Articles
of protection for warriors in battle were also prepared by the leatherer.
Besides, drums for war purposes were also manufactured bythe leatherer.
8.7. POTTERY
Pottery was recognised as a source of income. Kalasa and Kumbha were jars
and pots respectively and made of clay or some metal. The word kulala
denoting a ‘potter’ occurs in the Yajurveda.
19 9. TRANSPORT
Transport occupies a very important place in an economy. It connects
village with village and town with town. As today, Vedic Aryans invented
means of transportation and that is why India was known as a big trading
centre. The Vedic period’s means of transportation may be considered into
three parts, viz, land transport, water transport and air transport.
20 The most common means of transport in the Vedic times was ratha
(chariot). It was generally used for journey, carrying loads and war
purposes.
Two horses were generally employed in drawing the chariots but sometimes,
[rgveda-1.85.5, 3.60.2 and Atharvaveda-5.8.13, rgveda-6.46.14} three, four
or five horses were used. References indicate that this number could be
increased up to ten. The use of more than one horse depended on the load.
The owner of the chariots was called ‘Rathaspati’. The anas (draftwagon)
and Sakad (cart) were the modes of commercial transport.
21 AnaÍvahah (oxen) were commonly yoked to these carts. As far as
roadmakingis concerened it is also described in the Vedic texts.
Atharvavedamentions well made cart roads on a higher level. The highway
between twovillages was known as mahapatha. Roadways engineering is also
mentioned in the Vedic texts. The word pathik6t denoting pathmaker (the
roadways engineer) frequently occurs in the Vedic literature. The roads
were so constructed that the cart could play on them without any
obstruction So far as water transport is concerned, we find frequent
references in the Vedic texts. Although land transport was the chief means
of transport at that time yet water transport was also given due importance
by the Vedics. A mantra in rgveda indicates that Aryans had clear knowledge
about the great depth of the sea. Similarly, a mention of four seas in
rgveda also throws light on ‘Aryas’ knowledge of sea. The word ‘nau’ is
repeatedly mentioned in the
Vedic literature. It indicates a big boat or ship for river crossing.179
Aryans also manufactured big ship-like boats to cross ocean and sea. A big
boat is described as large as sky (divasprthu). {Satapatha
Brāhamana-5.1.4.11 and rgveda-10.33.5 rgveda-10.94.7, 10.64.10
, 4.30.10, Chāndogya Upanishad-4.1.8}
“ Ye men! In the ocean full of water and in the upper region where there
is no means of support for hand, where none can stand, you should travel
for success in your undertakings, by building ships and aerial cars in the
way described above. Such cars when moved by the properly yoked Ashvins
(fire and water or electricity and wind) brings success to the
undertakings. There should be a hundred iron bars (i.e. apparatus) for
supporting the cars on land, or water and in the air and keeping them
steady and for taking the bearings.
This apparatus should be fixed to the land conveyances, ships and aerial
cars. These three kinds of cars should be constructed for making them
steady. Such cars secure permanent and abiding enjoyments.
A sailor or boatman is named as ‘Sambin’ in the Atharvaveda. In
Satapatha Brahmana the word aritri is used for the oarmen and navaja for
the sailors. From these references it is apparent that there was maritime
traffic in the Vedic India.
22 Today mostly people think that the aeroplanes are a most recent
achievement of the modern scientific world. But the position is entirely
different. References indicate that Aryans of Vedic India had good
knowledge of aeronautics. In rgveda it is described that Varuna knows the
routes of the birds. In another mantra of rgveda a chariot is described
which moved to the three worlds, was no less than an aeroplane. Again, in
the rgveda some references occur which throw light on the chariots which
move swiftly in the {rgveda-1.46. 8, 1.116.5
Atharvaveda-9.2.6, Satapatha Brāhmana-2.3.3.5,} Yajurveda mentions an
aeroplane (vimana) which flies between earth and sky. In brief, it is to be
said that transport played a very important role in *Vedic economic life*.
People of Vedic times used to go to distant lands to earn profits on their
goods. Internal and coastal trade routes were traced by the people.
23 10. TRADE AND COMMERCE
>From the Vedas we know that during that period trade and commerce were the
important sources of economy. Coins were probably unknown, but trade was
carried on by barter and the cow was regarded as the standard of value.
There are reasons to believe that haggling was known but a bargain, once
made, held good. The exchange and storage of things are described in a
mantra.
Slender information is available in the Vedas regarding trade and
commerce. A mantra in Atharvaveda used the word ‘Vanij’ for the trader. It
indicates that Indra guides in trade-
I stir up the trader Indra. Let him encourage the businessman. May he
approach us and be our guide and leader. May he be chastising ill-will,
antibusiness robber and having control over others, be giver of riches.
24 Trade is the mean of renown and prosperity. It has been considered
necessary to go to distant places in connection with trade. Prayer has been
made for regular increase in the capital or money invested in trade. Pana
or Prapana has been used for purchase of articles and Vikraya or Pratipa@a
for their sale. The purchased articles are sold with some profit, thus
making trade profitable.
This has been indicated in the mantra-
The Atharvaveda 3.15 1 to 4 employs the words ‘Vasana’ and ‘Sulka’ for
price. The Atharvaveda emphasizes the need for having two things for
achieving success in trade. They are: i) Caritam: Conduct and behaviour.
The purity of conduct and sincerity in behaviour make a man trustworthy.
This helps him prosper in trade. ii) Utthitam: Rising up or diligence.
Devoting oneself to one’s work with firm determination is diligence. This
determination and diligence bring in prosperity. According to another
mantra, qualities called ‘Upoha’ and ‘Samuha’ are the means of prosperity.
Upoha means bringing close, which suggests bringing the items purchased
from distant places. ‘Samuha’ means accumulation. Selling of useful goods
brought from other places is highly profitable.
25 11. SOURCE OF INCOME FOR THE GOVERNMENT
For welfare of common people, it was but necessary for the King to explore
sources of income and so was done in Vedic period. Sixteenth part of one’s
income was charged as tax. 195 Assessment of taxes was done by the
representatives of public only. The public used to be motivated to pay
taxes by spreading the thought that prompt payment of tax would pave the
way to heaven. The public paid taxes willingly. The king accepted them for
the nation’s security. As taxes were charged for the purpose of national
security, even the kings’ relatives had to pay them. There were various
sources of income of the state. The king-imposed variety of taxes. These
taxes, therefore, have been described as ‘Bahudha Virupah’ i.e. various
kinds of taxes. They were general taxes, special taxes, bearable as well as
onerous etc. As is evident
from Atharvaveda, rivers were used for economic gains. Boats and the
passengers aboard were possibly charged taxes. The Atharvaveda also
mentions {{12.2.36, // 3.24.7// Atharvaveda-3.29.1// 3.29.3//,
3.29.7//11.1.6// 3.4.7// 1.15.3.}} ghee, milk, water etc. as means of
income. This shows that the milkmen had to pay taxes on the sale of their
milk products. Income from rivers and canals or drains for irrigation
purposes had to pay tax. Taxes were used for variety of purposes, some of
which find mention. It is used for the maintenance of the public,
Sitipad-It was meant for protection from the invaders. Svadha-It was for
the self-governance of the state There was a tax for the security of
paBcajana Another tax was aimed at protecting the weak against the
oppressions of the powerful. Taxes were also used for the purposes of
fulfilling the people’s wishes, expanding kingdom, dominance
and power, and for achieving the desired ends. Misuse of taxes has been
strictly warned against. It would amount to the king’s revolt against his
own self and his public if there is any misuse of taxes. In Taittiriya
Samhita and Taittriya Brahmana, the word Samgrahitr has used which
according to Sayana means treasure of the King. Vedic scholars have
interpreted it as tax collector or collector of revenue. The words ‘bali’
and ‘bhaga’ have been used for tax. The words ‘kara’, ‘sulka’ and ‘rajasva’
have also been used for tax in the Vedic literature. Although all these
words have their own significance, yet they
all were used in the sense of tax. Atharvaveda also says that the poor were
not asked to pay the tax to the king.
26 12. PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
Keeping in view the importance of wealth, Vedic seers had developed the
concept of professional education in Vedic India. Medical, military and
commercial education and the training of artists and artisans for
sculpture, architecture, painting, smithy, carpentry etc. draw attention
even in the modern era. Medical science is no doubt of hoary antiquity in
India. The Vedic literature refers to the healing feats of Asvins, who
though originally human beings, were later deified by a grateful posterity.
Medical education was usually imparted by the private teachers. Practical
training in surgery and pharmacy and constant
discussion of abstruse points among the students and teachers were some of
the important features of the training. During the Vedic period the
military profession was a popular one. Soldiers were imparted military
education and thus prepared to be excellently brave.
Strict discipline was enforced in this kind of education. The teachers
spoke in harsh and commanding voice and made the soldiers tough.
World-winning and invincible braves were prepared through military
education. During Vedic period, general attitude of society towards arts
and crafts was very positive. They were held in high esteem. The training
in fine and useful arts was given by the apprenticeship system under which
the students agreed to work under his teacher for an agreed number of
years. The training under the above apprenticeship system was fairly
efficient, for it was both theoretical and practical and given in the
workshop itself. It helped to raise the general level of
skill and workmanship in several arts and crafts. Those who were expert in
arts and crafts were called with certain specified titles. Tashtas were
trained in making chariots and doing carvings on them. Tvashtas were
educated in making various beautiful wooden items with help of axe.
Karmakars were trained in working with iron and other metals. They purified
metals by heating them through bellows. Hiranyakaras were trained in
preparing beautiful designed ornaments. Now only some titles are mentioned
with references. The titles are-Annapati, Pasupati, Asvapa, Vanapa, Kulala,
Sthapati, Pesita, Ganaka, Kaivarta, and Anjanikari etc. All theseindicate
the development of professional education in Vedic India.
27 CONCLUSION In brief, it can be said that wealth played a
very significant role at individual as well as at national level during
Vedic period. It is quite clear that the Vedic Aryans never ignored the
prosperous material life. Abundance of wealth and food was recognized by
them as the chief essentials for the happiness of family and society. The
Vedic society was a complete society in all respects, in which people
pursued various occupations and economic activities.
Proper attention was paid to develop the economic resources available in
the state. Economic policies were framed and adjusted according to social
conditions, ethical values and spiritual views. Taking inspiration from
Vedic tradition one could develop his or her material capability and hat
too in accordance with dharmic values K Rajaram IRS 281024
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