After an hour I finally got my computer back to working properly. It's
all because of a backup that went to sda1 instead of to an external
disk. I came home and discovered that the backup had failed due to
inadequate disk space. A few moments later I confirmed that the hard
disk was 100% full.

Here are the details:

Backup program is pybackpack, a GUI for rdiff-backup. 
Source: /, with typical exclusions
Destination: /media/disk2/Full_system_backup/

The computer is a Thinkpad and the external disk is a 500GB disk that
lives in a carrier that fits into the Ultrabay in place of the CD/DVD
drive. To make a backup I simply pull out the optical drive and insert
the 500GB drive. It automounts in a few moments because there is an
entry in fstab that tells the OS to mount it automatically
at /media/disk2. Nautilus is happy to let me drag and drop files to and
from it. 

The problem lies in telling rdiff-backup to place the backup on the
external drive, not on the mount point. I assumed that if Nautilus lets
me drag and drop files from the 500GB drive that it is mounted. And I
also assumed that if it is mounted, then any disk writes to the mount
point would go to the 500GB drive. Evidently I am missing a critical
bit of understanding about mount and mount points.

Before I try again, can someone explain what went wrong?
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